Captagon: 'Poor man’s cocaine' and the curse of crisis-hit West Asia

Iraq’s Anti-Narcotics Directorate has had a busy 2024, arresting 6,000 suspects for drug-related crimes and seizing 10 tonnes of various drugs so far. However, primarily a transit country, Iraq has seen a significant rise in drug use, particularly of Captagon and crystal meth, in recent years.

On Tuesday, the agency announced the seizure of 2.5 million Captagon pills, also known as the “poor man’s cocaine”, according to an AFP report. Much of this drug is trafficked across Iraq’s porous 600-kilometre border with war-torn Syria.

Recently, regional governments have intensified efforts to combat drug trafficking as oil-rich Gulf states remain the primary markets for Captagon.

Iraq at the crossroads of major drug trafficking routes

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On 18 March this year, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Director-General/Executive Director, Ghada Waly said, “Seizures of amphetamine, mainly in the form of “Captagon”, doubled from 2020, reaching a record high of 86 tons in 2021. In Iraq alone, Captagon seizures have increased by almost 3,380 per cent from 2019 to 2023. In 2023, over 4.1 tonnes of Captagon tablets were seized in the country.”

Positioned at the crossroads of major drug trafficking routes, Iraq is becoming an increasingly significant node in the drug trade network across the Near and Middle East. The country is influenced by the Balkan and southern routes, which traditionally channel opiates from Afghanistan to Europe, but now also serve as conduits for other types of drugs. Additionally, Iraq is a key transit point for Captagon flowing from the Levant to the Arabian Peninsula.

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Challenges and impact on society

Iraq’s extensive land borders, spanning over 3,600 kilometres, and its difficult terrain have facilitated the rise of complex criminal networks. These networks, which have thrived amid the country’s recent history of conflict including the fight against Islamic State, traffic drugs and other illicit commodities.

The increase in trafficking has led to a surge in local drug production and usage presenting new challenges to security and public health. Public health authorities in Iraq have reported a doubling in the number of people registered with drug use disorders from 2017 to 2021.

Demographic concerns and global implications

The Arab region, with a population of approximately 473 million, is predominantly young. In 2023, around one-third of the population was under 15 years old and young people aged 15 to 24 made up just over 17 per cent, projected to grow to 108 million by 2050. The rising drug use poses a significant threat to the health and future of this youthful and dynamic region.

While Captagon is mostly unknown outside the Middle East, countries like the United Kingdom and the United States are worried about its production in Syria. In December 2022, the US introduced The Captagon Act, requiring US agencies to combat the illegal trade due to concerns that the drug could reach the US.

Genesis of Captagon

Captagon, originally a brand name for the synthetic stimulant fenethylline, has become a notorious drug, particularly in the Middle East.

Captagon first appeared in Germany, where it was produced and patented by Degussa Pharma Group in the early 1960s to treat conditions like narcolepsy and ADHD.

In 1986, fenetylline was classified as a Schedule II drug under the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971, leading most countries to stop using Captagon. By 2011, the International Narcotics Control Board reported that no country had produced fenetylline since 2009.

The drug, which metabolises into amphetamine and theophylline, produces effects such as increased alertness, energy and euphoria while reducing the need for sleep and suppressing appetite. These characteristics have made it popular among soldiers and militants in conflict zones like Syria where endurance and wakefulness are crucial.

Despite its medical ban, Captagon’s illegal production surged with Syria and Lebanon becoming major manufacturing hubs. The drug is widely trafficked, often funding militant groups and criminal organisations. This illicit trade significantly impacts regional stability and finances terrorism.

Regional context and law enforcement challenges

In Syria and the broader Middle East, the drug known as “captagon” is also called “Abu Hilalain,” meaning “father of the two crescent moons.” This name comes from the two interlaced crescent shapes often stamped on the yellow-brown and white tablets. Besides the crescent moons, some Captagon pills also feature the Lexus car logo, which indicates higher-quality, purer versions of the drug.

The popularity of Captagon extends to Gulf countries like Saudi Arabia and the UAE, where it is used by young people and professionals seeking to manage stressful lifestyles. However, its abuse leads to severe health issues including addiction, cardiovascular problems and mental health disorders.

Efforts to combat the production and distribution of Captagon involve international collaborations and substantial drug seizures by authorities. Yet, these efforts are challenged by the complex socio-political landscape of the regions involved.

The Syrian connection

In their work, The Captagon Threat: A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities, Caroline Rose and Alexander Söderholm highlight a significant transformation in the production of Captagon within Syria. Production has evolved from smaller, fragmented operations in rebel-controlled regions to large-scale, industrial operations in territories controlled by President Bashar al-Assad’s regime. This shift has been accompanied by increasingly sophisticated smuggling methods with new overland and maritime routes being exploited creating substantial challenges for regional and international law enforcement agencies.

Rose and Söderholm also point out that elements within the Syrian government are deeply involved in the Captagon trade with complicity at the ministerial level in both production and smuggling. This involvement is a political and economic survival strategy amid international sanctions. According to a New Lines Institute report, the Syrian regime reportedly leverages alliances with other armed groups, such as Hezbollah, to provide technical and logistical support for Captagon production and trafficking.

The Captagon trade has rapidly grown into a significant illicit economy in the Middle East and Mediterranean regions. In 2020, the trade’s estimated value, based on large-scale seizures, was approximately $3.46 billion. By 2021, the potential retail value of the trade had soared to over $5.7 billion, underscoring its expansion and the increasing difficulty in curbing this illegal industry.

Health consequences and addiction treatment

The Cabin, an addiction treatment organisation operating in Saudi Arabia, noted that prolonged amphetamine use can lead to various adverse effects such as confusion, hallucinations, nausea, vomiting, seizures, elevated blood pressure and heart palpitations. Additionally, regular users have reported experiencing blurred vision, dizziness, respiratory issues, gastrointestinal problems, muscle and joint pain, mood instability and irritability.

Withdrawal from Captagon pills is particularly challenging, often marked by intense fatigue and other symptoms that drive individuals to relapse in an attempt to alleviate their discomfort. This cycle of withdrawal and relapse underscores the drug’s addictive nature and the difficulty in overcoming dependency, said The National.

Looking ahead

Captagon has woven itself into the very fabric of Middle Eastern life infiltrating war zones, construction sites and elite social gatherings alike. Without substantial efforts to curb its production and distribution, its impact may prove even more dangerous than the ongoing bloodshed in the region.