Know Your Classical Dances: How Bharatnatyam, rooted in temple dances of Devdasis, contributes to nation's sociopolitical climate

Indian classical dances – celebrated across the globe for their enriching and mesmerising virtuosity – can be traced back to centuries-old ways of storytelling, performed as much for entertainment as for the spread of cultures and knowledge. Each classical form is built upon layers of complex histories that often converge at the intersection of culture, art, politics, and even conflict, readjusting its structures and boundaries in the light of revolution and reform. Consequently, varying styles of the art form find new homes and families to become gharanas, yet other dance forms are added to the ever-dynamic definition of what constitutes as classical.

This series is an attempt to reacquaint the connoisseur and engage the uninitiated in the vibrant facets of the eight classical dance forms of India by offering a glimpse into the history, performance, attire, comportment, and musical accompaniments that give colour, form, and rhythm to these cultural legacies.

In the sixth essay, a look at the transformation of Sadir to Bharatnatyam.

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Sadirattam, known in the post-independence period simply as Bharatnatyam is perhaps one of the most widely recognised and globally renowned classical dance forms of India, a near inseparable part of the identity of the Indian nation. It has proliferated across the country, beyond borders and boundaries, and undoubtedly so, for within its contemporary name is embedded its nationalist identity: Bharatnatyam, is then literally the natya (dance) of Bharat (India). Significantly, the word also functions as a mnemonic calling to mind the bhava, raga and tala coming together to make the bharata, all of which are integral to this art form rooted in devotion and love.

The movement vocabulary of Bharatnatyam is as dynamic as it is versatile, it is a medium of storytelling that has evolved, compounded and refined itself through centuries. Its exponents have nurtured both its nritta and nritya elements to effectively build a repository of hastaka and abhinaya that explores countless issues of historical as well as contemporary consequence.

From a dance of the devdasis traditionally performed in temple precincts in Tamil Nadu to becoming a solo recital formalised by stalwarts like Rukhmini Devi Arundale, the trajectory of Bharatnatyam provides a fascinating glimpse, of the cultural evolution of a dance form and the political makings of a nation state.

From Sadir to Bharatnatyam, a nationalist revival

It is possible to trace the textual and historical references of Bharatnatyam to Nandikesvara’s Abhinaya Darpana that provides the framework for the dance form’s movement grammar, technique and abhinaya. Evidences of the mudras and postures of the dance can also be found in 12th century sculptural art, within the premises of Tamil Nadu’s Chidambaram Nataraja temple dedicated to the cosmic deity Shiva. Carved in stone, these statues are indicative of the 108 poses of Bharatnatyam as specified in Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra.

The dance form also finds mention in the ancient epics Silappatikaram and Manimegalai as well as the carvings in the Shiva temple at Kanchipuram dating as far back as the 6th century, all of which point to the prevalence and pre-eminence of this indigenous art form through centuries of changing social and cultural landscapes.

In this rudimentary form, Sadir, like most classical dances practiced in the pre-colonial times, was a temple art performed within these religious spaces or on stage-like platforms built in temple courtyards, most often as prayers or offerings to the deity. Devdasis or the servants of God dedicated their entire lives to the training and performance of this art and up until the 19th century, the practice of gifting young girls to the temples as wives or consorts of God prevailed in the southern region. They would receive training in the charis, karanas and adavus that is, the entire movement vocabulary that shapes Bharatnatyam and would perform mythological and romantic tales along with translating scriptural texts into poignant abhinaya.

As military and political conquests led to the fortified reign of the Maratha rulers in Tanjore and the Nayaka dynasty in Madurai, the dance form too adapted to these 17th and 18th century shifts to great acclaim and patronage from the new monarchy. In fact, the composers of the Tanjore Quartet credited with shaping the Thanjavur bani (style) of Bharatnatyam thrived under the Maratha rule and their flourishing work crafted a dance that was linear, geometric and comprised of a highly distinguished abhinaya aesthetic.

During this period, Sadir was as much a performing art of the courtesans and consorts as it was of the temple artists. Historical records provide rather blurry accounts of this practice but it can be surmised that while the art was rooted in Shaivite worship and Vaishnavism, it was simultaneously a dance performed for entertainment, with an abundant repository of lyrical and sensual poetry.  

Inevitably, the advent of the colonial era, the consolidation of the Madras Presidency and more importantly, the 1910 ban on temple dancing adversely affected the performance practice of this art form. The full impact of this curtailment was felt especially within dancing communities like the Isai Vellalar artists, nautch girls who had found patronage under the rulers of Tanjore. Caste structures operated extensively during this period and this non-Brahminical nomadic community suffered under the socio-cultural shifts, largely resorting to prostitution for their survival.

However, the nationalist struggle which sought to create an identity unique to the Indian state strove to reform and redefine indigenous Indian arts, turning its attention to temple dances and their ancient artistic legacies. Imminent revivalists such as E Krishna Iyer and Arundale, who had received her training under Pandanallur Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai sought to redefine the dance of the devdasis to give it a formalised structure that could be taken to the international stage as a dance form representing Indian culture.

Consequently, Bharatnatyam, in its new visage structured at the Kalakshetra school restricted the use of adavus, stylising its abhinaya to sanitise its sensuality and romance and certain explicit mudras and emotive elements became largely metaphorical, and wholly spiritual.

Performance practice and banis

In its contemporary form, a Bharatnatyam recital or margam comprises of multiple emotive and technical sequences as well as storytelling pieces describing the lore of Krishna or the feats of Shiva.

The dance typically begins with the Pushpanjali, or an offering of flowers to the deities, guru and the audiences. This is followed by the Alarippu, a prayer or invocation whose slow, rhythmic incantations signal the earnest start of a concert. The Jatiswaram that follows is an exploration of the purely technical grammar of Bharatnatyam showcasing the full range of its nritta repertoire. The four brothers of the Tanjore Quartet are known to have composed numerous Jatiswarams that have endured through time to be part of Bharatnatyam’s modern presentations.

With the next performance, the Shabdam, the artiste introduces the first element of Bharatnatyam’s theatrical abhinaya, usually with a short verse invoking the bhakti rasa or shringara rasa, emotions of worship and love. The Varnam marks a more elaborate rendering of the abhinaya, depicting vignettes from the epics Ramayana or Mahabharata and introducing an elevated natya or dramatic element into the performance. During the Varnam, the artist adds another layer, that of the laya or tempo to the performance, often oscillating between two speeds.

Where the Varnam lays out an engaging vignette which in its modern rendition also includes episodes from history, the Padam that comes next is simply an exercise in bhakti, seeped in seeking communion with the lord. The devotional notes of kirtana or javali make-up much of the repertoire of the Padam.

Drawing to a close, the recital returns to a spirited technical performance, called the Tillana. Quite like the Tarana of Kathak, this is made up of words and sounds that have no meaning but are so fitted into the melodious Carnatic ragas that they make for a rhythmic, fast paced composition ending with a final, rising crescendo. The Shlokam concludes this energetic and invigorating performance by producing a soothing, almost mystical effect restoring a state of relative calm in the audiences. Each piece within the sequence embodies elements of meter, poetry and musicality to build a recital in a layered manner, that in effect becomes a complete exploration of the dance form.

Such a sequence is performed in its entirety for the first time by an artiste only during the Arangetram, a crucial step in southern Indian classical dances like Kuchipudi and Bharatnatyam. Contrary to popular conceptions, this recital marks not the end but the beginning of a danseuse’s performing career. It is simply a concluding act of the preliminary decade-long training and the debut of a solo performer signalling that the artiste is now ready to venture onto stage.

Bharatnatyam schools in the contemporary period continue to follow the practice of Arangetram even as several flourishes have influenced the dance form to create distinct banis. Along with the Pandanallur, popular as the Kalakshetra school and the Thanjavur style, the Vazhuvoor school, with its emphasis on the lasya or the softer movement vocabulary introduced by Vazhuvoor Ramiah Pillai is also among the oldest Bharatnatyam banis in practice today. The Mellatur style is yet another school, rooted in soft footwork performed to the rhythms of the Tanjore Quartet.

Costumes and musical accompaniments

Bharatnatyam demands immense flexibility and command over laya to accommodate movements like chakris (spins) with one leg suspended in the air or difficult hastakas comprising a leg bent at the knees taken towards the shoulders.  

To allow such physical feats, the costume of the Bharatnatyam artiste is often a sari wrapped snugly to the body held firmly at the waist with a studded, gold belt. It is stitched in such a way that the pleated cloth falling in the front opens like a fan to showcase the bent knee posture and the footwork and ghungroos. The Bharatnatyam dancer is often dressed as a Tamil Hindu bride complete with fresh flowers, ornaments and the alta or the red paint that accentuates her palms and fingers.

Accompanying the dancer is the taladhari or nattuvanar to recite the words of the technical compositions while the vocalist brings forth the lyrical verses of the abhinaya portions. Cymbals, flute, a pipe horn or the nagaswaram, mridangam and veena provide rhythm and the melodious Carnatic musicality to verses composed in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada as well as Sanskrit.

Over the decades leading into India’s modern era, iconic Bharatnatyam artists like Balasaraswati, Yamini Krishnamurthy, Mrinalini and Mallika Sarabhai have become leading exponents of this ancient tradition. Yet, the birth of the Kalakshetra school, the structuring of Bharatnatyam for the stage and the elevated elements of bhakti and spirituality that doused the fervour of its shringara, whilst contributing to the creation of national pride also led to the loss of an uninhibited, bold expression of love and sensuality.  

Nonetheless, Bharatnatyam exponents now experiment with verses inherited from the vast traditional repertoire which lend themselves to multiple ideas and meanings that challenge the prevailing socio-political rhetoric. Dalit movements, gender inequality, political conundrums often form the pertinent subject matter of such recitals for an interpretative reimagination of age-old compositions, reaffirming at every turn the ever evolving and enriching virtuosity of this dance form.

Aishwarya Sahasrabudhe writes about art, culture, books, and entertainment. Currently, she has returned to school to study the intersections between gender, culture, and development. The writer is a Kathak Visharad practicing and performing the classical dance form for over a decade.

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