China's shadow armada: The unseen power of the maritime militia in the South China Sea

China’s maritime militia, often disguised as simple fishing boats, is a crucial but rarely acknowledged part of Beijing’s strategy to assert its territorial claims in the South China Sea. In May 2024, Chinese fishing boats began swarming the Scarborough Shoal, located within the Philippines’ exclusive economic zone.

These vessels were not there to fish but to counter a Philippine aid flotilla intended to deliver supplies to fishers near the disputed shoal. The Chinese boats, part of a maritime militia, successfully deterred the Philippine mission.

The maritime militia has a long history in the region, with its key role in seizing Scarborough Shoal in 2012 marking one of the most high-profile territorial disputes in the South China Sea. This strategic waterway has become a flashpoint due to its economic and military significance, with dangerous clashes becoming commonplace.

What is the Chinese maritime militia?

The People’s Armed Forces Maritime Militia (PAFMM) evolved from a military necessity post-civil war to protect China’s coastline. Initially composed of untrained fishermen, the militia has grown into a sophisticated force conducting gray zone operations—actions designed to establish control over contested waters without triggering open conflict.

These operations include providing armed escort for Chinese fishing vessels, intimidating commercial vessels from other nations, and deterring foreign coast guards and navies.

The PAFMM has been instrumental in various geopolitical standoffs, including the 1974 capture of the Paracel Islands, the 2009 USNS Impeccable incident, and the 2012 Scarborough Shoal clash. Each of these events underscores the militia’s role in advancing China’s territorial interests while avoiding direct military confrontation.

What comprises the maritime militia?

The maritime militia, a civilian-military force, has existed for decades but has become more professional and militarised under Chinese President Xi Jinping’s leadership since 2012. It consists of two main forces: a professional fleet of at least 100 purpose-built boats resembling fishing vessels and a larger fleet known as the Spratly Backbone Fishing Vessels (SBFV).

The professional fleet, equipped with military-grade equipment, is usually visible on satellite tracking platforms swarming disputed locations. The SBFV fleet is more difficult to spot due to lower-grade or non-existent satellite transmitters.

Also called the Fishing Militia, it operates a mixture of purpose-built maritime militia fishing vessels (MMFV) and regular fishing boats recruited via government subsidies. Most boats are 45 to 65 meters long, and the fleet is mainly owned by private individuals rather than the government. Although the militia is independent from the PLAN and the CCG, it is trained by both and operates from ports within Guangdong and Hainan Provinces.

Crews in both fleets are believed to include civilian fishers, sailors, and ex-military personnel recruited through government training programs. South China Sea expert Greg Poling, director of the Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative (AMTI), told The Guardian that these vessels tend to have smaller crews of about five to six when engaging in militia activities.

How are China’s maritime militia funded?

The maritime militia is primarily funded through government subsidies, with some personnel receiving full-time salaries from state-owned companies. The SBFV crews also benefit from lucrative government fuel subsidies for militia missions, which disincentives them from regular fishing.

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A 2021 investigative report by the AMTI confirmed the militia is organised, funded, and directed by the Chinese government, holding Beijing legally responsible for its actions, which violate several tenets of international law. Although the Chinese government rarely acknowledges the militia’s activities, it defends operations like those at Scarborough Shoal as “rights protections.”

How does the militia operate?

The militia operates across the South China Sea, the Yellow Sea, and the exclusive economic zones of Indonesia, Vietnam, and Malaysia. The fleets conduct intrusive journeys through foreign waters, blockade disputed reefs and islands, and have engaged in dangerous maneuvers and used water cannons against other vessels. The professional fleet is typically called upon first for aggressive operations.

While usually unarmed, the militia employs dangerous maneuvers such as ramming and shouldering other vessels. Professional militia vessels are equipped with navigation and communication equipment and sometimes small arms. Some units also have naval mines and anti-aircraft weapons. This increasing sophistication makes the militia more identifiable as a government-sponsored force, which can complicate its gray zone operations.

Analysts say that the professional fleet is a direct threat, but smaller. The SBFV fleet is larger but a nuisance, suggesting that governments must respond to these threats differently, treating the professional fleet as a military threat and the SBFV fleet as a law enforcement problem.

What has the international reaction been?

World governments and bodies have repeatedly condemned China’s behavior in the South China Sea, including the actions of the maritime militia. The United States, a treaty ally of the Philippines, has accused the militia of violating international law to enforce its unlawful maritime claims.

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The Philippines, frequently targeted by militia activities, remains determined to pursue lawful activities in its maritime zones. “China was willing to do crazy stuff and everyone backed down [in the past]. But now they’re not, and like a school bully, China doesn’t know what to do now,” Poling observes.

Why are they crucial to Beijing?

The PAFMM’s deniability and ability to establish a ground-level presence make it a valuable tool for China. Over the past two decades, China has established a permanent and militarised footprint in the South China Sea, partly due to the PAFMM’s actions. The militia helps maintain China’s claims in contested waters, which are critical to Beijing’s broader maritime strategy.

China’s maritime militia serves as a gray zone force, allowing Beijing to exert control over disputed areas without escalating to open conflict. The militia’s actions create legal and diplomatic ambiguity, complicating responses from other nations.

This strategic utility was demonstrated during incidents like the 2021 Whitsun Reef surge, where over 200 militia vessels moored off a disputed reef, drawing official complaints from the Philippines.

China’s maritime militia is a sophisticated and strategically significant force that plays a crucial role in Beijing’s efforts to assert control over the South China Sea. Despite international condemnation, the militia continues to operate with substantial government support.

With inputs from agencies